Journal of Language Studies

Abstract Morphology is considered one of the most prominent branches of linguistic studies upon which Qur’anic exegetes have relied to clarify the meanings of the sacred text; for a proper understanding of the Qur’anic verses cannot be achieved without examining the inflection and structures of words. In this regard, al-Akhfash al-Awsat (Said ibn Masadah) stands out as one of the eminent scholars of the Basran school, having enriched grammatical and morphological scholarship with precise opinions that left a significant impact on the works of grammarians and Qur’anic commentators alike. As for al-Alusi (Shihab al-Din Mahmud), in his exegesis Ruḥ al-Maani, he frequently cited the views of leading grammarians and morphologists, foremost among them al-Akhfash, on issues related to vowel alternation and substitution, plural patterns, verbal nouns, derivation, nisba (attribution), and other topics directly relevant to the linguistic interpretation of the Qur’an. The importance of this study lies in its aim to identify al-Akhfash’s morphological opinions within al-alusis exegesis and analyze al-alusis stance toward them—whether he adopted them, opposed them, or cited them neutrally. It also seeks to highlight the influence of the Basran school on al-alusi’s interpretation through an analytical reading of his texts and to demonstrate the value of al-Akhfash’s contributions to understanding Qur’anic meaning.

Abstract The research deals with revealing the eloquence of the Messenger, peace be upon him, in employing the place to convey the heavenly message he was entrusted with. He did not only mention it with its known dimensions, but made it a method of Islamic advocacy by bringing the meaning closer to the mind of the addressee, intensifying and giving it the symbolic dimension, and its role in achieving the imagination of the meaning in the mind of the addressee, and in creating the scenes of enticement and intimidation, which have a great role in achieving a response from the recipient of the text, which carries the acceptance of a certain behavior or its rejection, in addition to the artistic renewal of the Arabic language that the noble statement achieved in employing the place by which he conveyed the light of his guidance to all generations and with different nationalities and cognitive and cultural levels.

Abstract This paper, titled (The Problematic of Comparative Literature and Its Relationship with Cultural Criticism), aims to present and explain the conceptual problematic concerns that exist between comparative literature and cultural criticism. The former is considered a pillar of literary studies, while the latter is an intellectual and critical methodology. They differ in many fundamental aspects, most notably their objectives, subjects, and points of reference. From this perspective, the paper addresses the aforementioned subjects through three main sections: The first section provides a brief overview of the essence of comparative literature, summaries its key functions, and discusses its relationship with other branches of literary studies: literary history, literary theory, and literary criticism. The second section addresses the historical and contemporary crisis facing comparative literature. The third and final section is dedicated to presenting the relationship between cultural criticism and the crisis experienced by comparative literature, especially in the current era, which is witnessing profound cultural changes in all aspects of social and political life in human societies.

Abstract This research focuses on the fundamental role of the Mental Lexicon in Second Language (L2) processing, specifically within the framework of Psycholinguistics and Cognitive Science. The Mental Lexicon is defined as an organized repository of linguistic information (phonological, semantic, grammatical) that the mind relies on for comprehension and production. The study analyzes the cognitive differences between First Language (L1) and L2 processing in comprehension and production stages (such as phonological processing, lexical access, syntactic, and semantic processing), emphasizing the influence of L1 and the challenges in L2. The findings highlight the development of automaticity in phonological and semantic processing, where direct connections between L2 forms and concepts strengthen, and L1 mediation diminishes. This is explained within the framework of the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM). This deep understanding provides a foundation for developing effective strategies in second language acquisition and learning.

Abstract If history had followed the separation of morphology from the level of syntax both of which were within the structures of grammar extensive efforts would have been made to analyze this level and many theoretical models would have emerger in this field .Based on these at tempts this morphological level was defined in numerous ways ،but the most prominent and successful of these was the definition offered by structuralists who stated that the morphological level is the internet structure of the word .This refuted the previously prevalent idea that the word is the smallest unit at the morphological level. Our attempt strategies up on which most the Ries are based in their level. The researcher presents one of the proposed models for applying the three strategies in light research into three axes with sub-axes to provide sufficient information.

Abstract This research, entitled "Language and Migration," constitutes an attempt to examine and understand the complex and interconnected relationship between language and migration. It explores the significance of language in the migrant experience, as well as the importance of second language acquisition within migrant communities for accessing services, given that knowledge of a second language facilitates the establishment of relationships with the populations of their destinationareas. This work presents a new linguistic subfield termed "Migration Linguistics," which represents a branch of applied linguistics and is considered a recent and emerging area of linguistic study. Borlongan first introduced the term "migration linguistics" in a 2019 article, marking the earliest documented usage of this terminology. Language serves as a comprehensive social tool for migrants, forming the foundation of migrant language policy through the utilization of languages employed by migrant communities. The language spoken in a particular country represents one of the characteristics that must be considered in the migration process. The native language of migrants constitutes their national identity and forms an essential component of their cultural identity, serving as a factor in preserving migrants' national unity. The migrants' native language is regarded as a foundation for learning additional languages. Language testing represents one of the policies implemented by legislative authorities, based on the proficiency level that migrants must achieve in the target language. Consequently, language has been utilized as a tool for migrant selection for several decades. Due to the role of language in the migration process and its effects in today's world, systematic research on language within the framework of the migration process is necessary.

Abstract This research is entitled (The Reflection of the Concepts of Life and Death in Hashim Saraj's Nano Poems (It is an attempt to think more about the issue Contemplation of human existence and the philosophy of life plays a significant role in reflecting on the question of life after death. The concept of death drives the human mind toward introspection and self-questioning such as what transpires after death and how it differs from life on our planet. These and other related inquiries frequently arise, adding complexity to human thought. This study focuses on death and life as two impactful themes, aiming to explore and seek answers to these existential questions. To achieve this, the poetry of Hashim Saraji has been analyzed, as both themes are prominently featured in his work. Through profound contemplation of life and death, Saraji devotes substantial space to these topics in his precise verses, delving into their enigmatic depths. His approach encourages readers to reflect more deeply on these subjects and engage meaningfully with the themes. For this research, the method of artistic analysis has been employed to interpret the poetic texts. In analyzing Saraji’s poetry, he engages with philosophical questions tied to these themes, placing greater emphasis on death than on life and examining the intricacies surrounding the subject. In doing so, he illuminates the mysteries and complexities intertwined with death, urging readers to confront these profound existential dilemmas.

Abstract Transitional phrases are essential for achieving cohesion and coherence in English writing. However, many second-year English major students produce essays with disjointed sentences and poorly connected paragraphs at Idlib University. This research is built on Hasan and Halliday theory of cohesion (1976). It aims to investigate whether targeted learning of transitional phrases could improve students' writing quality, to identify the types of transitional phrases students used, and to explore the difficulties they encountered. A mixed-method, quasi-experimental design is used, involving 50 second-year English major students. Data are collected through pre- and post-tests, a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal a significant improvement in writing quality after the intervention, with writing scores increasing by 66.8% (mean 20.08 to 34.7, sig =0 .001). Students have shown increased use of addition and contrast transitions, while concession and inference transitions have remained limited. These results highlight the importance of integrating focused training on transitional phrases into EFL writing courses. The study offers practical implications for curriculum design, including incorporating regular drills, checklists for peer review, and short assessments. Teachers should also receive training on how to model and assess transitions effectively. The findings could inform similar interventions in other academic levels or contexts. In conclusion, systematic instruction in transitional phrases enhances students’ cohesion and overall writing quality, underscoring its importance in EFL contexts.

Abstract This study examines the challenge of preserving cultural authenticity when translating Al-Mutanabbi’s classical Arabic poem "Braces" into English. The research aims to identify key cultural references, evaluate translation strategies (literal, adaptive, domestication, foreignization), analyze distortions in meaning, and propose balanced solutions. Grounded in Newmark’s Adaptation Theory and Venuti’s domestication/foreignization framework, the study employs mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) by analyzed 15 English translations of 3 culturally dense verses from seminal works by scholars like Arberry, Nicholson, and Montgomery (1907–2016). Findings reveals that the analysis of 15 translations reveals 67% successfully preserved cultural essence, primarily through adaptive strategies (47%) rather than strict literalism (27%). Social references (50%) proved most distortion-prone, while historical terms (50%) demanded careful handling. Foreignization and domestication were equally used (13% each), but neither dominated.

Abstract Morphological productivity is defined in terms of how frequent a morphological rule produces distinct words. In Kurdish, a word formation process may be used to result in more new words than other processes. Thus, in this paper, the facilitators and the barriers of the concept of productivity in Kurdish (Sorani Dialect) is demonstrated with examples. Additionally, the three-word formation processes which are derivation (dařiştin), compounding (lêkdan), and borrowing (wergîran) are examined theoretically by providing a historical background concerning each process. Meanwhile, they are analyzed practically by classifying (sorting) the corpus data according to each word formation process distinctly. After taking each process’s frequency of word production, the concluding points concerning the number of different words produced by each process is declared in the conclusion.

Abstract The role of syntactic strategies in adversarial media discourse namely in five communication roles of politicians, activists, journalists, scientists and global leaders, is investigated in the current study. Utilising a data set of 12 BBC HARDtalk interviews (2020–2024), the analysis demonstrates the ways in which linguistic forms reflect strategic objectives: mitigation, justifying, deflecting and reframing. By incorporating the Syntax– Pragmatics Interface into Strategic Manoeuvring Theory, it is essential establish a two-economy model in which syntactic economy (well-structuredness) and pragmatic economy (economical processing) combine for clarity. A mixed-method design is employed, in which the quantitative analysis provided evidence of the correlation between phrase types and pragmatic functions and its statistical significance, while qualitative analysis served to ground these correlations within five social meanings. The results show clear tendencies: politicians and diplomats like to use conditional or passive clauses for justification and deflection; activists rely on assertive declaratives; journalists are prone to contrastive or cleft constructions for reframing; scientists and corporate speakers use modal clauses for evidential precision, while global leaders deploy empathic conditional constructions. It is argued in this paper that the principle of syntactic economy is a universal mechanism for pragmatic efficiency in institutional discourse and, thus it extends both the theoretical and empirical domain as far as discourse-pragmatic research is concerned.

Abstract Sonia Sanchez’s poetry offers a powerful portrayal of the complexities and resilience of Black women in America. Her work focuses openly on themes of racism, gender, resistance, and self-empowerment. As a central figure in the Black Arts Movement, Sanchez crafts a poetic voice that is both political and personal. This study explores how her poetry embodies intersectional identity and resistance, revealing the overlapping systems of oppression that shape the lives of Black women—such as racism, sexism, and classism—while also celebrating their beauty, strength, and autonomy.

Abstract Kathleen Jamie's poetry illustrates the effects of human actions on the natural world. Jamie’s poetry expresses a viewpoint on the inevitability of human impact. This tendency is demonstrated by the traces that remain and integrate into the natural environment. This study’s aim is to provide a thorough analysis of Kathleen Jamie's poetry and its impact on the natural environment and ecocriticism. The poet promotes awareness and a reconnection with nature, highlighting many natural beings that are sometimes neglected or mistreated in their coexistence with humanity. The poet's work promotes a connection with the natural environment.

Abstract Flipped learning is a pedagogical strategy that shifts direct instruction from the group learning environment to the individual learning space (Bergman and Sams, 2012). The instructor fosters student-driven application of concepts and creativity in the subject matter, transforming the classroom into a dynamic, interactive learning environment. Videos are used to introduce new material to the class, after which they participate in discussions, assignments, projects, and activities. This research aims to look at how university students may learn English orally by using the flipped learning strategy as opposed to the traditional one. To carry out the study, the researcher relied on the semi-experimental method. The population of study consists of 144 students, including 50 students. The sample consists of all first-grade students enrolled in the Math Department at the College of Computer Science and Math at Tikrit University who took part in the investigation during the second semester of the 2024–2025 academic year. The students were split up into two different groups: experimental (25 students) those who were instructed by using the flipped learning strategy, and control (25 students) those who were instructed in using the traditional method. The test were given pre-posttests. Findings from the research demonstrated that the flipped learning strategy, which emphasizes student self-learning and makes it the primary focus of instruction, had a discernible impact on the persistence of the influence of prior learning and its implementation in the academic setting. Therefore, this may help the students in the experimental group become more proficient in oral English.

Abstract Speaking and writing (productive skills) are problematic areas that many EFL school students suffer from. Accordingly, the current study aims at finding out the role of Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) on EFL preparatory school students' language proficiency in productive skills. It is hypothesized that there are no statistically significant differences at the level of significance (0.05) in the mean language proficiency in productive skills among the mean scores of students' achievement between the experimental group taught by the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) and that of the control group receiving traditional instruction in language proficiency posttest. To verify the hypothesis of the study and achieve its aims, a quasi-experimental nonrandomized control group, pretest-posttest design is employed. Two groups are randomly selected from the fifth preparatory class at Amouriya Preparatory School for Girls to represent the sample of the study, comprising 60 students (30 students in each group). Both groups are subjected to the same pretest to ensure equivalence between them. Then the experimental group is taught according to the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), whereas the control group is taught according to the method stated in the Teacher's Book. After achieving the validity of the test, a pilot study is conducted on 25 students from the fifth preparatory class. Then both groups are subjected to the same posttest in language proficiency, focusing on productive skills. Data have been analyzed statistically. The results have shown a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups. In light of the obtained results, conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions for further studies are put forward.

Abstract The present study aims to explore the stylistic features with a special focus on the use of figures of speech in The Yellow Birds by Kevin Powers. It examines how these devices such as metaphor, repetition, personification, hyperbole and irony contribute to the novel’s structure and affect the narrative. Using Leech and Short’s (2007) model, the study adopts a qualitative approach to analyze seven purposively selected extracts. The researcher obtains the data from the novel itself. The analysis reveals that Powers skillfully employs figurative language to convey the psychological disintegration and emotional intensity of war, enriching the poetic texture of the narrative. This study contributes to the field of stylistics by showing how figures of speech function not only as aesthetic devices but also as tools for expressing the profound human experience of war. Particularly in the context of war literature, it emphasizes how figures of speech are not just instruments of artistic expression but also vital in conveying the inexpressible elements of human experience.

Abstract The current study aims at investigating the impact of a programme based on ADDIE model on third-year university students written performance. To conduct the study and fulfill its aims, it is hypothesized that, there is no statistical significant difference between the mean score of the experimental group performance and that of control group in pre & posttest. A sample of (60) students have been chosen arbitrarily from the third year of the Department of English at the College of Education for Women / University of Tikrit, and divided into equal groups, i.e. the experimental and control groups. The collected data has been statistically analysed using T-test formula for two independent samples. The results indicated that there is a significant difference in the mean scores between experimental and control groups in favour of the experimental group who is taught by using the suggested programme. Finally, in the light of the obtained results, a number of conclusions have been put forward.

Abstract T.H.I.N.K. is an educational a strategy designed to enhance critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving skills among students. This strategy is particularly effective in language learning contexts, where collaboration and communication are essential. T.H.I.N.K. stands for True, Helpful, Inspiring, Necessary and Kind. This study aims at finding out the effect of T.H.I.N.K strategy on Iraqi EFL pupil`s achievement. Finding out the effect of T.H.I.N.K strategy on improving EFL pupil`s post achievement test. The study includes the following hypothesis, There is no statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group which is taught by T.H.I.N.K strategy and the control group which is taught by the traditional method in the post achievement test.There is no statistically significant differences between the mean score of the experimental group in pre- posttest. The research population consists of 72 students from fifth preparatory schools in city, with a sample of 52, for each group 26 students randomly selected from the fifth preparatory class at Al-Bojwari secondary School for boys at Salah AL-Din governorate / in Baji City. To ensure comparability, both groups are matched on parental educational level, age, previous English scores, and pre-test results. The study employs a post-test consisting of six questions assessing four skills. The data collected from these instrument are analysed statistically using the T-test for independent and paired samples. The findings indicate that the T.H.I.N.K strategy positively influences the experimental group's English learning outcomes compared to the control group. The study end with some conclusions with recommendations for future research to further explore the benefits of the T.H.I.N.K strategy in an educational setting.

Abstract The objective of this quantitative experiental study is to investigate the impact of the Cognitive-Code Method on the reading and listening comprehension levels of Iraqi EFL students using the Cognitive-Code Method. To achieve the study objective the following hypotheses have been set: First, there is statistically significant higher reading comprehension scores among experimental group who are taught by using the Cognitive-Code Method compared to control group who are taught by using traditional methods. Second, there is statistically significant improvement in listening comprehension skills for experiment group who are taught by using the Cognitive-Code Method compared to those in a control group. A sample of fifty EFL students from Al-Hittin Secondary School for Girls in Kirkuk City participated in an experimental study designed to investigate the effectiveness of instructional methods. The experimental group received instruction using the Cognitive-Code Method, while the control group was taught through prescribed method . Data collection instruments included a post-reading and listening test. All research instruments were reviewed by experts to ensure both face and content validity. Statistical analyses involved Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to assess differences in comprehension outcomes between groups. Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, appropriate recommendations and suggestions for future studies are put forward.

Abstract The objective of the present study is to investigate how recursive listening activities improve pupils' ability to understand spoken English in various contexts. To achieve the aim of the study, it hypothesizes that there is a statistically significant difference among the mean scores of Iraqi EFL pupils who participate in recursive listening activities will demonstrate better comprehension of spoken English in various contexts. The study's sample comprises sixty (60) pupils who have been chosen at random from the second grade at Umm Al-Mu'minin School for Girls in Tikrit Center for the academic year 2024-2025. The sample divides into two groups, one for the experimental group and the other for the control group, with 30 pupils in each group. The two groups are equalized in their ages, the parents' academic attainment, and scores in the pretest. Three post-tests with five questions each are designed to gather information. The data collected from the results of the three posttests have been analyzed statistically by using a t-test for measuring the pupils' comprehension. The Alpha-Cronbach formula is used to measure the reliability of the posttest. The result shows that there is a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the experimental group and the control group in the posttests, which indicates that recursive listening activities are more efficient than the recommended method of teaching. According to this study's findings and conclusions, suitable recommendations and suggestions for future research are presented.

Abstract This work examines the differences in the way J.L. Austin and John Searle observe the meaning in the speech act theory, and in particular, the notions of direction and intention. On one hand, even though both philosophers consider language as an act of action, they are much different in pressing home the connection of utterances regarding performative social contexts versus the internal intentions of first sentence meaning constructs composed by the speaker. Based on qualitative and comparative analysis of both ‘How to Do Things with Words by Austin and Speech Acts by Searle, the paper outlines vital places of convergence, and divergence of the two authors in approaching the meaning of words and its usage in particular circumstances and intentionality. It proves that to Searle, intentionality takes center stage in the classification of speech acts whereas to Austin, meaning is placed in the context of performative and situations. In support of the argument, the paper points out that speech acts may not be given their meaning in terms of linguistic form, but rather a meaning in terms of context-sensitive and goal-directed application in the communication domain. This shows the interconnected role played by cognition and social structure in determining linguistic interaction and gives a better view of how utterances operate in real life communication.

Abstract This study examines the relationship between Willingness to Communicate and Learners’ Autonomy among university students learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Recently, both Willingness to Communicate and autonomy have been recognized as critical affective and behavioral factors influencing language acquisition, especially in learner-centered educational settings. The study aims to explore whether students who exhibit higher levels of autonomy in their learning are also more willing to initiate and participate in communicative tasks in English. The sample includes 65 university students, (male and female), they are randomly chosen from Baghdad and Tikrit universities. Data collection involved the administration of standardized questionnaires to a sample of EFL university students. Quantitative data were analyzed using correlation coefficient. Preliminary findings indicate a significant positive correlation between learner autonomy and willingness to communicate, suggesting that students who take greater responsibility for their learning are more likely to engage in communicative activities. These results highlight the importance of fostering autonomous learning environments to support EFL learners' communicative competence. The study concludes with pedagogical recommendations for integrating autonomy-enhancing strategies into EFL curricula to encourage more confident and communicative learners.

Abstract The present study, applied to a sample of preparatory Syrian students, aimed at studying the use of code-switching for students' performance in the classroom and the reasons for using code-switching. Although code-switching has been widely examined in different educational contexts, there is still limited research addressing its impact on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Syria, especially at the preparatory stage. This lack of empirical evidence has created uncertainty among teachers and policymakers regarding whether code-switching hinders or enhances learning. Thus, the problem this study seeks to address is the absence of clear, context-specific findings on how code-switching influences Syrian students' academic performance and classroom experiences. This experimental study adopts a mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative and qualitative approaches, using three data collection instruments: tests (pre- and post-), a questionnaire, and interviews. Sixty students participated; they were at eighth grade at preparatory schools in the second semester of the academic year 2024–2025. They were divided into two equal groups: the experimental and the control. The analysis of the data showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in vocabulary learning, reading comprehension, grammar use, and writing development. It also showed that overcrowded classrooms and time constraints were the main difficulties the participants encountered. However, code-switching was fruitful, as it helped the participants to have better results in their tests. In addition, the results showed that limited code-switching was very important. Moreover, teachers pointed out that they use code-switching to ensure clarity, particularly when introducing new vocabularies and grammar rules. They also use it to manage classrooms and support students' emotional comfort. Code-switching helped students better understand English lessons, reduce confusion, and participate more confidently.

Abstract This article contends for a poetics of witness that, looking to both texts in the light of each other, sees Carolyn Forché’s poetry as an instance of a poetics of witness as resistance to political violence, imperialism, and the silencing of marginalized voices. By close reading the two poems “The Country Between Us” and “The Boatman,” the essay examines how Forché blends her own lived experience with historical trauma to bear witness and contest hegemonic narratives. The thesis takes a postcolonial theoretical perspective, using Achille Mbembe, Edward Said, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's ideas to analyse how Forché's poetry subverts Western complicity in international atrocity and reclaims the silenced subaltern voice. The research is designed to examine the ways in which poetic form, imagery and voice act as instruments of resistance in situation of political conflict and displacement. It tackles the following guiding questions: How is the Forché’s poetry expressing in marginalized voice? How is she employing the language of poetry to address the historical and political horrors she’s encountered? Where can her works be located in the discourse of postcolonial resistance? Through a qualitative analysis and close reading of text, the paper argues that Forché’s poems are not narrations of suffering but constitutes interventions in the politics of memory and ethics. The speciousness of the charge does nothing to diminish “The Country Between Us,” which meditates on American imperialism in El Salvador through visceral imagery and testimonial voice, or “The Boatman,” which reimagines the Syrian refugee crisis with lyrical empathy and moral urgency. Both works illustrate the poet’s function as witness and mediator between historical trauma and ethical participation, and the work of poetry as a form of resistance to silence and a reaffirmation of human dignity.

Abstract This study analyzes the symbolic meaning of the lexemes "ghost" (prizrak) and "spirit" (dukh) in the consciousness of Russian language speakers. The research examines how cultural-historical context and religious traditions influence the perception of these concepts in contemporary Russian. Despite their apparent synonymy, these words possess distinct connotative and symbolic characteristics. The research methodology includes a psycholinguistic experiment involving 156 respondents aged 18 to 65, residing in various regions of Russia. Participants were asked to complete associative tasks, evaluate the emotional coloring of the words using semantic differential scales, and describe the visual images that emerge when perceiving these lexemes. The survey was conducted remotely via the Google Forms online platform, which enabled the inclusion of respondents from different Russian cities under conditions of limited mobility. Results demonstrated that the word "spirit" (dukh) is predominantly associated with religious, elevated, and positive content, whereas "ghost" (prizrak) evokes persistent negative associations related to fear, death, and unrealization. Gender and age differences in the perception of these concepts were also identified. The study contributes to understanding the cognitive mechanisms of categorizing the supernatural in Russian linguoculture and demonstrates the importance of considering the symbolic dimension of words in cross-cultural communication and translation.